Primary - Executive Function and Memory

A pupil may have poor recall of phonemes and corresponding graphemes

Pupil is unable to say the alphabet or recognise alphabetical order

• Ensure alphabetic knowledge is secure and if not use the alphabet arc-as a resource to develop strategies to support pupil’s working memory:
  • Sing the alphabet, as the melody supports working memory
  • Chunking the alphabet using the 4 quartiles - (A-D, E-L, M-R, S-Z) - the mnemonic ‘All Elephants Make Squirts’

Auditory Memory Difficulties can result in difficulty storing, processing information and completing a task 

The pupil may have forgotten what was said, for example remembering the sequence of letters in chunks of the alphabet

• Provide Auditory sequential routines - a sequence of letters (orally, for example, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’):
  • Ask the pupil to put the letters in the middle of the arc. This can be extended by adding a delay
  • The sequence could begin with three letters and then be gradually extended:

Video: Auditory Sequential Memory (3:01mins)

• Model strategies which may help:
  • Say the letters over and over
  • Write them in the air with his / her finger
  • Say them in a rhythm

Video: Working Memory (2:33 mins)

The pupil may find it very difficult to remember letter / sound correspondence

He / she may find it difficult to hear sounds in sequence in a word

• Introduce the new sound / letter using guided discovery, either an auditory or visual approach. Guide the pupil to discover the new sound:

Video: Guided Discovery (auditory) (3:10 mins)

• Explore the new sound and discuss articulatory factors using a small mirror
• Ask the pupil - “How are you making that sound - is it blocked or opened?”
• If blocked - “How are you blocking it - with your mouth, tongue, teeth or lips?”
• “What part of your tongue is blocking it - front, side or back?”
• Is it a vowel sound or a consonant sound?”
• Follow up auditory discovery by introducing the grapheme using either a visual or a tactile approach as this consolidates the learning and builds up automaticity. The teaching of the new letter sound is multisensory:

Video: Introducing the grapheme (1:59mins)

• The pupil’s working memory is supported as he / she learns a new grapheme through a multisensory approach
• Follow a daily sound card routine for overlearning:
• Letter sound, for example /a/
• Letter name “a”
• Representative picture - ‘apple’ or pupil’s own picture:

Video: Introduce the flashcard and flashcard routine (1:03 mins)

• Demonstrate how the letter is formed using the handwriting routine:
• Pupil traces over the teacher’s model
• Pupil copies the letter
• Pupil writes the letter from memory
• Finally, the pupil writes the letter with eyes closed 

During each step, the learner should articulate the sound and say the letter names:

Video: Handwriting Routine (2:27 mins)

• Teach Stimulus Response Routine to consolidate and build automaticity with new sounds. This repetitive approach develops automaticity in learning: 

Video: Stimulus Response Routine (1:51 mins)

Stimulus Response Routine Instructions

• Teacher makes the sound /ă/
• Pupil moves around the other three points in a clockwise direction: says ‘a’ (letter name), writes ‘a’ and then says the clue-word ‘apple’
• The teacher then starts from step 2 by saying the letter name and the pupil responds by going ‘clockwise’ around the other 3 steps
• The routine is repeated until all four starting points have been used by the teacher. Once familiarity with the steps has been established, it should become a quick routine to develop automaticity (less than 1 minute)
• Forming the letter using the cursive script can help with directionality and formation of each letter - introduce the lead in and lead out stroke
• Use multisensory approaches when introducing a new sound and engage all the senses - visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. This will consolidate learning for the pupil and develop automaticity
• Use of Verbalisation / sub-vocalisation (self-talk) organises thoughts and procedures, to support memory. Allow the pupil to say aloud what he / she is trying to remember
• Naming the letters before writing a word down
• Saying aloud the next word in a sentence prior to writing it and so on
• Use Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) Routine when learning spellings in structure, as this repetitive process of learning a new word helps develop automaticity:
• The pupil says each letter name as he / she writes the word (use of cursive handwriting aids automaticity and establishes a grapho-motor link): 

Simultaneous Oral Spelling Instructions  

Video: Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS)   (4:39 mins)

• Dictation is a great method for consolidating and reinforcing new learning. Repeating back a dictation sentence before writing it. Simple structured sentences ensure the best chance of successful spelling for the pupil and can be used to assess progress:
• Teacher dictates the sentence 
• Pupil repeats the sentence 
• Teacher dictates the sentence again (to ensure accuracy and correct pronunciation) 
• Pupil repeats the sentence, checking for accuracy 
• Pupil writes the sentence (the use of a cursive script helps to develop automaticity in spelling the new word, hence freeing up the working memory to focus on content) 

The pupil may find it difficult to remember what a letter looks like, High Frequency Words (HFWs) and topic words

Pupil confuses letters such as ‘b, d, p, q’

• Have tabletop prompt cards - for the pupil during writing activities:
  • Target sounds 
  • Letter names
  • High Frequency Words (HFWs)
  • Topic words 
• Mnemonics will provide a memory prompt on directionality of letters,

Orientation of letters prompt

Ensure these mnemonics are explicitly explained. Do not assume prior knowledge has been linked. English readers, read letters left-right across the page. A pupil may be confused as the ball could sit on either side of the bat. Explain that you draw the bat first and then the ball (left to right).

• Thumbs up for ‘b’ and ‘d’, thumbs down ‘p’ and ‘q’
• Explain that in the alphabet arc Mr ‘b’ comes first and he must face Mr ‘d’ who comes after ‘c’, as he wants to chat’; ‘b’ and ‘d’ stare at each other and poor ‘c’ is stuck in the middle

The teacher can model this using his / her thumbs and demonstrate the 2 letters chatting:

• Repeated practice forming the letters develops automaticity in the motor-memory which can aid recall of letter direction and correct storage of letter in long term memory

• Teach cursive handwriting with the lead in and lead out strokes
• Ask the pupil to verbalise the movements as he / she forms the letters
• This multisensory approach will aid recall of directionality and formation of letters
• Allow the pupil to:
• Form the letters in sand (first with his / her eyes open and then closed)
• Form the letters under a model of the letter
• Form the letter on handwriting sheets

Pupil guesses at words in reading with no awareness of strategies that may help 

Pupil struggles to decode longer words as he / she cannot hold all the phonemes in his / her working memory long enough to blend 

• Provide visual reminders of reading strategies:
  • Use grapheme/ phoneme knowledge
  • Use context to clarify word meaning
  • Think of syntactic knowledge - does what you have read sound like a proper sentence
• Teach word patterns so the pupil can develop familiarity with words in a similar pattern
• Alongside this teach sets of 4 / 5 high frequency words each week (adapt to suit specific need) and consolidate until they are secure in memory

Pupil finds it difficult to retain information

Pupil lacks automaticity in learning and new concepts

• Retrieval from long-term memory is easier when meaning is attached, for example, sounds are easier to recall when taught with an associated key word and picture
• Consolidate new learning with lots of interactive games and activities 
• Reduce working memory load by teaching the pupil to ‘chunk’ the word into onset and rime and / or syllables as appropriate
• Teach visualisation by encouraging the pupil to create a picture in his / her mind of what has just been read, and then ask him / her to describe it, 

Visualisation - Reading Prompt Chart

Pupil struggles to comprehend long and complex sentences when reading

Pupil struggles to read a passage and then answer questions related to it

• Give the pupil easy passages to read and model how to skim and scan for key information (use highlighter pens):
• Supply some longer pieces of text that can be read as digital copies and demonstrate how Texthelp Read and Write, Immersive Reader or Microsoft Read Aloud enables the text to be read to the pupil and he / she can focus more on comprehension:

 Read and Write Quick Reference Guide 

• Support active reading by highlighting key words to keep the information read, active for long enough for the pupil to respond to questions
• Cloze passages and sentence completion exercises can support reading comprehension:
• Provide opportunities for reading of continuous text and encourage discussion of text, generalising and scanning for key information:

Video: Consolidation Exercise (4:45 mins)

• Provide a reading ruler if the pupil loses his / her place while reading:

The pupil struggles to follow written instructions and as a result will often sit and not begin work

The pupil may be unable to plan and prioritise for an activity and therefore delays beginning a task

The pupil may be unsure of question words, what, who, why, when and where

• Use numbers rather than bullet points (in written instructions) -the pupil can keep track of where he / she is when completing an activity
• Provide a visual map of what needs to be included and in what order
• Provide scaffolds such as visual prompt cards with headings and sub-headings, sentence or paragraph starters and frames so the pupil does not feel so overwhelmed with the writing task  
• Explain the meaning of the 5 question words-who, why, when, where, what
• This can be extended to include ‘how’

• Use ‘help box’ or ‘help board’ to remind the pupil of learning intentions and what the teacher is looking for
• Team the pupil with a study buddy or encourage group work where the pupil can check with peers to get back on track
• Provide visual prompts as appropriate, such as mind maps, flow charts:

  Mind map - bubble format

• Provide spellings in onset or rime groups for example, (onset) flat flag fled / or (rime) oat, boat, coat, float, throat
• Teach patterns and sequences consistent in sound and spelling, (for example, ‘snow’ and ‘grow’ to reduce the burden on working memory
• The pupil can reason by analogy and recognise that if he / she can spell one word, he / she can spell related words 

The pupil is unable to retain spellings of tricky words, for example ‘are’, ‘our’ and may develop a reluctance to write

The pupil is unaware of spelling rules and makes continual spelling errors in his / her work

• Use Look, Visualise, Say, Cover, Write, Check (LVSCWC) strategy to learn HFWs
• Use rhymes / sayings and mnemonics to help the pupil remember tricky words (resources to support mnemonics can be found on the Literacy Service Primary Resource Site)
• Use Mnemonics for phonetically irregular words, such as: 
  • people – people eat oreos people like eating 
  • any – ants never yawn, 
  • said- Sally Anne is dancing:
• After highlighting the tricky bit (as above) provide the mnemonic sentence and read with the pupil
  • Ask the pupil to colour highlight the first letter of each word in the mnemonic. Ask the pupil to name the letters they have highlighted and guide them to identify that these letters spell the tricky word
  • Give the pupil an opportunity to say the mnemonic as they write the first letter of each word in the mnemonic. Finish by telling the pupil “think of the mnemonic and name each letter as you write the word”

Printable Resources: Spelling Mnemonics 

• Teach spelling rules-Spelling rules- such as the doubling rule when adding -ing or -ed:
  • “1, 2, double I do” (pupil starts counting at vowel and if followed by a consonant – the word must be doubled) skip = 1, 2, double I do (skipping/skipped) 
  • “1, 2, 3, no doubling for me” (pupil starts at vowel and if followed by 2 consonants then there is no doubling) camp = 1,2,3 no doubling for me (camping/camped) 
  • The doubling rule: When a word has one vowel before a single consonant, double the consonant before adding the ending: The word ‘sit’ becomes ‘sitting’
  • The drop ‘e’ rule: When a word ends in ‘e’ you drop it before adding a suffix, if the suffix begins with a vowel, ‘care’ becomes ‘cared’
  • The add rule - if the suffix begins with a consonant, such as, ly, ness, ful, s, less, ment, some, ty, keep the ‘e’ and just add the suffix:

Teacher Guidance: Advice for Teachers on Spelling Rules

• The Read and Write prediction tool can be used as spelling support when completing independent writing using a keyboard

• Teach morphology - root word, prefixes and suffixes 
• Use Directed / Guided discovery learning with a pupil who is developing phonics skills, for example when teaching the ending ‘-ed’ invite the pupil to search for examples of words that end in ‘ed’ in his / her reading books

• The teacher can read out words containing the specific sound and ask the pupil what sound / sounds are the same in each word

  EA Guidance Video: Guided Discovery (auditory) (3:10 mins)

• Provide opportunities for reading of continuous text and encourage discussion of text, generalising and scanning for key information:

  Video: Consolidation Exercise (4:45 mins)

• Sort the words to discover the rules for adding -ed and the three different sounds it can make (/d/, /t/, /id/) 

The pupil may not use punctuation but writes in continuous sentences

The pupil may seem unaware of grammatical structure

The pupil may be unsure how to self-correct his / her work

• Use a highlighter to find all the full stops or question marks in a page of text and help the pupil to learn the symbols and meaning
• When presenting written material, simplify the grammatical structure of sentences as needed
• Teach the pupil to self-correct using a mnemonic for COPS (Capitals, Omissions, Punctuation, Spelling):    

Mnemonic for checking dictated sentences (COPS) 

COPs Proof-reading prompt

• An alternative approach for older pupils is - the mnemonic POWER (Plan, Organise, Write, Edit, Redraft) - teach the pupil to follow the procedure 

When writing a story, the pupil does not know how to start or how to organise ideas

During writing tasks, the pupil struggles to remember what he/she wanted to say once he / she begins to write 

• Assist the pupil to plan, prior to beginning to write, use mind maps or flow charts so that he / she can re-access his / her ideas:

Mind map - bubble format

• Provide writing prompts and structures for different types of writing, for example:

Writing Prompts 

• Use voice typing to dictate stories using, for example, Microsoft Dictate in Word or Speech to Text in ‘Read and Write’ or the microphone in iPages on Apple devices:

Microsoft Dictate Help Sheet

Read and Write Quick Reference Guide for Google Chrome

Read and Write for Windows: Tools for Students with Dyslexia

• Use Text-to-Speech to read back what has been written. This will highlight errors in punctuation and wrong word use (as the word will not be said as he / she thought it would).  This encourages pupil self-regulation and enables the pupil to access recorded ideas as many times as he / she needs
• Use ‘Picturize’ or ‘Clicker Grids’ on the Clicker 8 app to help the pupil build words and sentences, these Apps support writing and reduce working memory demands:

Clicker 8 Website  

Installing Clicker 8 on a Personal device 

• Support memory by using the pupil's interests and semantic knowledge when planning writing tasks
• Provide the pupil with a story map:

The pupil is often unsure what books are required for each activity

The pupil is poorly organised and appears forgetful

• Provide separate folders for different schoolbag items, for example homework, reading books and so on
• Use consistent colour coding for books related to each subject area
• Give checklists of items needed for activities:

• Ensure clear links are made between new learning and previous learning
• Partner the pupil with working memory difficulties with a pupil with good memory skills, for support when he / she is unsure what to do
• Personalising learning - can help the pupil feel that information is relevant and produce an emotional response, which creates autobiographical memories
• Providing opportunities for overlearning (so that the pupil moves beyond mastery to automaticity). This helps strengthen memory traces
• Games such as snap, pairs and bingo can develop working memory through remembering the rules of the game and which cards are being held
• Visual memory games such as “Pelmanism” (matching pairs in card games) to practise syllables, spelling rules and onset and rime 
• Auditory memory games such as ‘I went to the shop / beach / zoo and I saw...’ can challenge the pupil to remember a list of items
• Provide opportunities for the pupil to make the alphabet arc 

The pupil struggles to follow oral instructions with multiple steps

The pupil requires instructions to be repeated several times

• Provide a quiet learning environment. Seat the pupil in an area with minimised distractions (such as away from windows and doors)
• Ensure there are no hearing difficulties and if there are, make appropriate 
• accommodation in the pupil’s seating arrangements
• Speak slowly in a positive and clear tone
• Break longer instructions into smaller, single steps and use simple language 

• Shorten activities and allow movement breaks to keep the pupil focused: 

EA AAIS: Time-Out Activities

EA AAIS: Quick-Fixes

• Check the pupil understands the task by asking him / her to verbalise the instructions
• Give sequences of instructions for the pupil to carry out, beginning with simple instructions and increasing in complexity
• Encourage the pupil to request repetition as needed. The use of a traffic light card on the pupil’s desk (or similar) could be a discrete signal to ask for help:

Printable-Traffic lights (say how you feel about the work)

• Seat the pupil at the front of the classroom, with easy access to the teacher
• Where possible ‘show’ rather than ‘tell’ the pupil what to do
• Provide a model of what the completed task should look like - this can alleviate stress

Pupil loses focus during the lesson

The pupil may be unable to self-monitor and self-control in order to maintain focus on an activity

• Use ‘Call and Response’ signals and do give time warnings throughout task:
  • Teacher says, “1, 2, 3 eyes on me”
  • Pupil replies, “1, 2 eyes on you”
• Teach the pupil strategies which may help him / her to refocus during an activity:
  • Countdown timer
  • Timeout breaks