Post Primary - Reading

Age 11 -16

Reading difficulties may often persist at the post primary level and the gap in reading ability can widen. The pupil immediately becomes exposed to subject-specific vocabularies. A pupil with specific literacy difficulties may need to be explicitly taught new vocabulary within each subject area. It is important that all pupils have equitable access to reading material and to do this effectively one needs to consider the individual pupil’s barriers to learning and consider what accessibility tools may be appropriate.

A pupil with literacy difficulties may have additional co-occurring diagnosis such as Autism, Attention Deficit, Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), Dyspraxia or Executive Function Difficulties. The pupil may have hearing difficulties or have accessibility difficulties as a newcomer pupil. Any of these co-occurring diagnosis or circumstances may exacerbate the literacy difficulty and may have a significant impact on how well the pupil accesses the curriculum. Effective reading strategies and comprehension strategies need to be taught within lessons so that pupils become familiar with consistent and structured routines.

Indicators of reading difficulties in post primary

Indicators of reading difficulties in post primary:

  • Reading is hesitant and laboured
  • The pupil may stumble over words frequently
  • The pupil may attempt to decode some words, but the process is neither fluent nor systematic
  • The pupil may gloss over words and mis-read small high frequency words
  • Reading is inaccurate
  • Words are omitted and text is ‘invented’
  • The pupil may lose his /her place easily and omit or re-read lines of text
  • The pupil may have difficulty articulating multi-syllabic words
  • Comprehension is often weak - the pupil may glean the gist of the text but miss detail and struggle with skills of inference or summarisation
  • The pupil may show distress when asked to read aloud
  • The pupil may display a lack of motivation to read

Many of the sources of knowledge introduced in Foundation Stage, Key Stage 1 and 2 continue to be relevant as are the strategies which develop the pupil’s metacognition:

Phonological Awareness - the ability to recognise smaller units in the spoken word at the phoneme, syllable and onset and rime 

Orthographic knowledge - awareness of patterns or clusters of sounds in the written word

Fluency - the ability to read with speed, accuracy and expression

Vocabulary - the body of words used in a particular language

Comprehension - the ability to understand what has been read 

Print Awareness - Awareness of authorial techniques, relevant parts of a book, for example, glossary or index

Assessment
  • Collect school data to track progression year by year
  • Assess the pupil’s reading individually using a miscue analysis
  • Consider the type of reading difficulty (for example, is it word or text level difficulty / lack of background knowledge or a decoding difficulty due to under-performing phonological or orthographic processors or a working memory difficulty)
  • Note errors and analyse the type of error and the occurrences, note how the pupil reads, (use of fluency and expression)
  • Check understanding and ask more detailed questions about vocabulary or ask the pupil to rephrase a sentence
  • Ask your pupil to identify and explain the pronouns in the passage, as very often a pupil with literacy and co-occurring difficulties will be unsure of who the ‘he’ or ‘it’ refers to in the text
Good classroom practices
  • Teach the rules of group work and encourage small group work or paired work
  • Arrange tasks where pupils can read in pairs, allowing the pupil with the reading difficulty to read less text but focus on accuracy 
  • Display target words clearly in the classroom
  • For each subject, teach the specific subject content vocabulary and ensure the definitions are secure
  • Build upon basic comprehension skills such as reading sentences and identifying the main point or idea before progressing to more complex comprehension skills
Visual processing and tracking difficulties

Visual processing difficulties often continue to affect pupils reading in the post primary sector. Visual tracking describes how the eyes follow the visual information to interpret it. To have a visual processing and tracking difficulty implies the eyes are unable to feedback visual information accurately such as identifying information from pictures or reading text. It may focus on difficulties with saccadic eye movements where the pupil has trouble reading smoothly ‘through’ individual words or where there appears to be difficulty with the smooth movement of eyes while reading along lines of text. Other difficulties may involve the ability of eyes to ‘team’ (work together with the same point of focus) while reading text. Where these types of difficulties are apparent, referral to an optician is always advised.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 
The pupil may have difficulties keeping his / her place in a text

  • A reading ruler may be useful to help a pupil keep his / her place when reading:

    Image showing reading rule being used on a book
  • Use of the Texthelp Read and Write screen masking tool enables the pupil to highlight small pieces of text and can aid focus and attention
The pupil may guess at words rather than reading carefully across a word
  • Encourage the pupil to track left to right by sliding his / her finger under words when stuck at a particular word
  • Provide opportunities for the pupil to visual track to develop left to right orientation and word reading
The pupil may struggle to read texts or information presented in different formats or fonts
  • Provide written material in an accessible format:
    • Use a sans-serif font, such as Ariel, Comic Sans, Verdana, or Sassoon
    • Use a minimum of 12 / 14 font size
    • Use bold text but no underlining or italics
    • Break text into short readable chunks
    • Keep text left justified and avoid background graphics
  • Carefully explain the layout and presentation of written material
  • As a school, develop and follow house rules on how text for pupils is presented, so there is consistency across subjects and year groups

 

Working Memory Difficulties

A good reader relies heavily on strong working visual and auditory memory skills.  Good readers only require several exposures to a word before they can read it automatically. Working memory relates to the ability to hold and manipulate visual and auditory information ‘in the mind’ over short periods of time. It is known that many pupils who experience learning difficulties have poor working memory and that this form of memory plays a crucial role in our ability to effectively store and retrieve information. The capacity of working memory differs among pupils, and many may demonstrate lower than expected recall of words and sounds (when decoding test) which are commonly known by their peers.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

The pupil may struggle to decode an unknown word in text

 

The pupil may struggle with word recognition due to a difficulty transferring the correct image of a word to long-term memory

  • Teach reading strategies:
    • Read ahead to work out a tricky word
    • Check in the dictionary to find the meaning of the tricky word
  • The Dictation Routine is useful for reinforcing punctuation as well as developing note taking and proofreading skills:
    Teacher Guidance: Dictation Routine
    EA Guidance Video: Dictation Routine (9:02 mins)
  • Chunking is a useful strategy to support a pupil with a poor working memory. It helps the pupil to recall and retain spellings
  • Provide vocabulary lists with subject specific words for topics (use Texthelp Read and Write to create vocabulary lists with visuals alongside the definition):
  • Example of a vocabulary list guide
  • Provide lots of opportunities for rehearsal and consolidation of new learning as this aids automaticity in a task 
  • Use Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) Routine when learning spellings in structure as this repetitive process of learning a new word helps develop automaticity in reading and spelling:
  • Instructions for Simultaneous Oral Spelling procedure 1 Helper says the target word while learner looks closely at helper's mouth 2 Learner repeats the word 3 Learner names the letters 4 Learner writes the word naming the letters aloud as they write 5 Learner looks at and reads the word 6 Learner repeats the word across the pate - 2-3 repetitions at least 7 Learner checks the word against the model 8 Repeat procedure for the next word

The pupil may struggle to remember what they have just heard

The pupil may disengage because the pace of the lesson is too fast 

The pupil may not know what he / she can do to help make the learning process easier

The pupil may have difficulty remembering what he / she thinks about a text as it is forgotten or becomes jumbled 

  • Provide a ‘Help box’ or ‘Help Board’ or post-its, listing step-by-step procedure required in a set activity
  • Use Verbalisation to support memory by allowing the pupil to say aloud what he / she is trying to remember:
  • Allow the pupil to use Speech-to-Text software, to record ideas immediately before they are forgotten (Microsoft Dictate tool on Word):
    Teacher Guidance - Microsoft Dictate Help Sheet
The pupil may struggle to comprehend the text as the working memory is overwhelmed by the effort of decoding
  • Encourage the pupil to re-read the text and highlight a key phrase in each paragraph
  • Use Visualisation (this includes illustrations that represent character, setting, event time, weather, problem, ending) to prompt the pupil’s visualisation technique:
    Printable Resource: Visualisation - Reading Prompt Chart

The pupil may struggle to remember sequences of information to be learned

 

The pupil may struggle to hold a list of instructions in his / her head, although can perform all tasks when told individually

 

Slow Processing Speed

Slow processing speed is when pupils need additional time to take in, understand and respond to visual or oral information. Slow processing speed difficulties can be apparent in pupils with co-occurring difficulties, and this will impact on their ability to read with automaticity.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

A pupil may be unable or reluctant to answer questions in the classroom

 

The pupil may have difficulty processing information at speed 

  • Ask the group a question, allowing a 10 / 15 second pause 
  • If the pupil does not answer, try rephrasing or simplifying the question
  • If the teacher becomes aware the pupil is unclear don’t linger long on an answer as this may highlight the pupil’s uneasiness
  • Break instructions down into a step-by-step process
A pupil may have withdrawn totally from any group work
  • Plan for the pupil’s success in set activities

  • Introduce Reciprocal Reading. Explain each pupil’s role within a reciprocal reading group and provide opportunities for the pupil to move to each role.

    Teacher Guidance - Reciprocal Reading Prompts

    What is reciprocal Reading? Guiding reading activity that encourages active thinking and learning. Improves reading comprehension Used with small groups. Uses 4 components: Prediction, Clarification, Questioning and Summarising REF: Education Endowment Foundation 2021 Improving Literacy in KS2 Guidance Report.
    Questioning - Teacher Prompt. Keep a note of the questions you have as we are reading. Mine are on the whiteboard Where is the story set? What do I know about the country or that time? Why did the author choose that word? What does it tell us about the character? I wonder if...
    Clarification - Teacher Prompt. Keep a careful eye on what's happening. If you get lost, look at the words or phrases you're unsure of. It helps to go back and re-read if you are not quite sure what happened and why? Let's annotate any words or phrases we're unsure of. Let's check out the meaning of those words.
    Summarising - Teacher Prompt. To really enjoy this text it's important to summarise after each chapter. Think about the main theme - what is it? Take note of your summary - it should be short - so everyone can understand it. A summary could be a quick picture with annotations. A post-it summary could help you remember the story at home.
    Prediction - Teacher Prompt. What do the title and the front cover tell me? Is the author giving me hints about what to expect? Can I find and use hints and clues to make my predictions? Oh I didn't expect that to happen... Can I squeeze more evidence from what I've read to make new predictions?
The pupil may struggle to respond to oral comprehension questions or questions asked in different subject areas
  • Allow the pupil additional time to read and / or to respond to oral comprehension questions 
  • Encourage the pupil to stop between paragraphs and retell the events in own words, discussing what he / she understood / did not understand 
  • Reduce the quantity of answers required and focus instead on quality
  • Provide an opportunity for the pupil to reread the text

 

Orthographic Processing Difficulties

Orthographic knowledge refers to how spoken language is represented in writing. Accurate word identification requires a pupil to know which letters combine to form it, and so orthographic knowledge enables fluent reading by enabling the pupil to recognise words quickly and automatically.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 
The pupil may find it difficult to recognise patterns in print and as a result may be unable to apply this knowledge to unfamiliar words
  • Assist the pupil to recognise larger units of letters such as onset/ rime. The ‘onset’ is everything before the vowel, for example ‘fr’ in ‘fright,’ the rime is the vowel and everything after, for example ‘ight’ in ‘fright’
  • Sorting words into onset / rime word lists will support / scaffold the pupil with working memory or orthographic difficulties and enable him / her to read other words with the same ending, for example, night, light, flight, sight 

(still may be relevant Year 8-10)

  • Follow a structured, cumulative, sequential, multisensory, phonics-based spelling programme:

Stage 1

  • Teach vowel-consonant digraphs -/ar/, or/, /er/
  • Rules for ‘w’ and ‘v’ words
  • Double letters (ll, ff, ss, ck)
  • Magic ‘e’
  • Hard and soft ‘c’ and ‘g’
  • Wall words (tch, dge, gu)

Stage 2

  • Spelling choices for the long vowel sounds
  • Vowel digraphs (oi, oy; ou, ow; au, aw ….)
  • Vowel-consonant digraphs (ir, ur, ear)
  • Suffixing rules
  • Irregular plurals

Stage 3

  • Syllable division
  • Regular final syllables (tion, le, ...)
  • Complex suffixing rules
  • Complex spelling patterns - ph saying /f/ and ch saying /k/

Use Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) Routine when learning spellings in structure as this repetitive process of learning a new word helps develop automaticity in both reading and spelling: 

Teacher Guidance - Simultaneous Oral Spelling 

The pupil may find it difficult to recall a specific HFW or topic word
  • Provide personalised vocabulary list of tricky words 
  • Provide subject-specific vocabulary lists, which can created using the Texthelp Read and Write toolbar
Example of a vocabulary list guide

 

Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary can be categorised into three tiers. 

Tier 1 is basic vocabulary that pupils will encounter and use in everyday speech, such as house, dog, walk, shout.

Tier 2 vocabulary are words that are high frequency but may have multiple meanings or be descriptive words and are a feature of mature language users. These words are often found in literature and will have an impact on a pupil’s comprehension such as contrast, paragraph, formidable, negligent.

Tier 3 vocabulary words are low frequency and context specific. At post primary level, a pupil will need to know and understand many Tier 3 words which are subject-specific, such as abbreviation, equivalent, molecule, equilibrium.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

The pupil may have poor vocabulary knowledge 

 

The pupil may often use the wrong words, confusing the meanings 

 

 

  • Develop a pupil’s spoken vocabulary:
    • If the pupil is unsure of the word and how to say it, he / she will struggle to read it and understand it 
  • Pre-teach key vocabulary before reading a new text
  • Provide explicit vocabulary instruction as part of a lesson
  • Use Google Docs to create a personalised vocabulary list
  • Introduce graphic organisers to provide structure and suggestions of vocabulary
  • Provide access to audio books or the Texthelp Read and Write Text-to-Speech tool:

Read and Write Quick Reference Guide for Google Chrome

Read and Write for Windows: Support Tools for Students with Dyslexia

  • Teach words that are commonly misspelled 

  • Teach Tier 1, 2 and 3 vocabulary

    3 tiers of vocabulary: Tier 1 is every day words, for example, chair, table. Tier 2 is topic words that appear frequently, for example, appear, peculiar Tier 3 is less common topic specific words, for example, denominator, photosynthesis.

    Figure 12: Tiered model of vocabulary - adapted from Beck and McKeown (1985)

  • Teach any new subject-specific words as a reference and help with revision 
  • Provide vocabulary lists that the pupil can refer to when delivering or planning a speaking activity

The pupil may lack interest in reading around subjects independently 

 

He / she may lack prior subject / topic knowledge 

 

He / she may be confused over similar words used in a different context in one subject area than another, for example, the word ‘factor’

 

 

  • The format of the book may not interest the pupil so provide alternative formats, such as, audiobooks
  • Connect to pupil’s personal interests
  • Encourage intrinsic motivation by making the learning relevant to him / her
  • When teaching spoken vocabulary ensure that the pupil also encounters the word when reading and give him / her opportunities to read articles or short passages using the vocabulary and its related meaning
  • Teach specialised vocabulary, for example, ‘factors’ of a number in mathematics has a different meaning to the ‘factors’ that influenced World War One in History
  • Plan and prioritise repeated exposure of words in both oral and written contexts 
  • Use word cards for each pupil to discover the meaning of words related to the topic. This will help a pupil take responsibility for his / her own learning 
  • Work in pairs and groups to research a new topic area

The pupil simple language in oral tasks or written tasks 

 

  • Pre-select and teach new vocabulary in context
  • Using sentence starters containing the target words and the pupil can complete the sentences 
  • Use Target Word Templates (with quadrants: define your word, use word in a sentence, draw a picture of it, list synonyms or antonyms) to help pupil develop understanding of new vocabulary 
  • Signpost the pupil to synonyms so that the pupil can recognise how some Tier 2 vocabulary items can enhance the accuracy and sophistication of his / her talk and writing in the subject domain
  • Combine vocabulary development with spelling instruction. For example, highlight the morphological patterns that determine complex spelling of subject specific vocabulary
Developing Morphemic Knowledge - Word study

Word study is the systematic and explicit teaching of the study of words and how they work. The three principal areas are morphology, etymology and syntax and these can be incorporated into lessons incidentally or taught explicitly with subject vocabulary. A significant proportion of the subject specific vocabulary we use in the post primary sector has ancient Greek and Latin origins. In Science and Maths, the proportion can be as high as 90%.  Academic vocabulary helpfully includes common word roots (such as, ‘geo’ or ‘bio’), prefixes (such as ‘un’ and ‘re’) and suffixes (such as, ‘ing’ and ‘ed’). Teachers can use approaches to vocabulary instruction based in etymology and morphology to help pupils understand and remember new words.  Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Morphology is the study of the structure and parts of words.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

The pupil may have under-developed morphological awareness 

 

The pupil may find it difficult to use appropriate tenses 

 

He / she may find it difficult to identify grammatically correct sentences 

 

The pupil may confuse syntax and the use of verbs and nouns when reading, which impacts on understanding

 

 

 

  • If knowledge of affixes is insecure teach spelling rules for adding ‘s’, ‘es’
  • Teach when to double the last letter when adding ‘ing’:
    • The doubling rule: When a word has one vowel before a single consonant, double the consonant before adding the ending, the word ‘sit’ becomes ‘sitting’
    • The drop ‘e’ rule: When a word ends in ‘e’ you drop it before adding a suffix, if the suffix begins with a vowel, ‘care’ becomes ‘cared’
    • The add rule: If the suffix begins with a consonant, such as, ly, ness, ful, s, less, ment, some, ty, keep the ‘e’ and just add the suffix:
      • ‘Hope’ becomes ‘hopes’ / ‘hopeful’ / ‘hopeless’
      • ‘Wise’ becomes, ‘wisely’
      • ‘Tire’ becomes, ‘tiresome’ / ‘tireless’
      • ‘Like’ becomes, ‘likely’, ‘unlikely’:  

Teacher Guidance: Advice for Teachers on Spelling Rules

  • Teach suffixes and prefixes and use of verbs, nouns, adverbs

  • Explicitly model and teach the pupil to make more complex sentences applying knowledge of the new vocabulary

    Model to the pupil how a root word, for example, ‘joy’ and be changed by adding a prefix or suffix;

    his is a morphology planner. A square divided into six boxes. The middle square provides the root word, for example, 'joy' and the meaning of the word-'a happy feeling'. The boxes on the left of the box provide prefixes, such as, 'en' and ''over'. The boxes on the right of the word are suffixes 'ed', 'able', 'ing', 'ful', and 'ly'

    Figure 13: Morphology Planner - from EEF Document - Teaching Literacy in KS2

The pupil may be unsure of homophones and their meanings 

 

The pupil may be unsure of word origins and how this impacts on specific words

 

  • Provide opportunities for the pupil to explore homophones, for example, ‘beech’ and ‘beach’, ‘deer’ and ‘dear’
  • Add systematic teaching and explore – the way in which words carry meaning such as being able to identify the meaning of the prefixes and suffixes and identify roots of words like atmosphere: ‘atmo’ meaning vapour stream and ‘sphere’ meaning globe
  • Teach how words work through etymology  and a word’s history / origin. Discovering the origins of a word can enrich a pupil’s understanding of vocabulary particularly within curriculum subjects:

Teacher Guidance - Greek and Latin Etymology (Word Origins)  

Teacher Guidance - Days of the Week Etymology  

Teacher Guidance - Science Root Words

  • Make use of graphic designers, such as, the Frayer organiser  to help the pupil analyse words and understand key subject vocabulary   

    The Frayer Organiser is shown as an unworked copy. There are 4 boxes within a square. The 1st box is the definition of the word. The 2nd box are the characteristics of the word. The 3rd box are examples and the 4th box is non-examples.

Figure 14: The Frayer Organiser (unworked example) from EEF Document - Teaching Literacy in KS 2       

  • Teachers can also deepen students’ understanding of vocabulary using graphic organisers, such as concept maps and the Frayer Organiser

    Frayer Model: There are 4 boxes within a square shape. The top box is the definition of the word planet. The 2nd box describes the characteristics of a planet. The 3rd box provides examples of planets and the 4th box provides non-examples of a planet.

Figure 15: Frayer Organiser: A worked copy from EEF Document - Teaching Literacy in KS 2    

Reading Fluency

Reading fluency involves reading with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (use of appropriate stress and intonation). Fluent reading is therefore the bridge between word recognition and text comprehension. Very often, a pupil in primary school can read fluently due to the genre of text used such as narrative fiction whilst the fluency of a post primary pupil can be hampered due to demands of the post primary curriculum and introduction of information texts. Pupils with literacy difficulties will continue to struggle in the post primary sector and many of the same cognitive difficulties may be apparent, for example, working memory difficulties and underperforming phonological and orthographic processors. Pupils with specific literacy difficulties may still spend a great deal of energy in decoding texts.

Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

The pupil may struggle with accurate decoding 

 

 

  • The pupil in the lower post primary years (Year 8-10) may still benefit from following a sequential, cumulative, multisensory and phonics-based programme
  • Incorporate reading activities within all subjects, reading daily short passages or pieces of text 
  • Ensure the reading passages or text offer a challenge but that the pupil is not overwhelmed by the level (high interest reads / ‘reading age’ appropriate)

The pupil’s reading is stilted and hesitant 

 

The pupil may be unable to read many words on sight 

 

 

  • Develop word recognition using word walls or providing access to Texthelp Read and Write vocabulary tools
  • To help develop fluency discuss the text and model passages first. Use the pupil’s knowledge of words and syllables and the context of the text to attempt unknown words
  • Provide opportunities for reading of continuous text and encourage discussion of text, generalising and scanning for key information:

EA Guidance Video: Reading Consolidation Exercise (4:45 mins)

  • Syllables are an abstract concept that need to be taught clearly and explicitly. Teach syllable rules and division rules to develop the skill of reading multi-syllabic words automatically
  • Demonstrate syllables in compound words, for example, ‘armchair’, ‘doorstep’
  • Introduce the pupil to the syllable division tool in Microsoft Immersive Reader
  • A pupil may benefit from knowing the six syllable types and rules:
    • Closed: the vowel is closed in by one or more consonants, vowel will only make its short sound, for example, cat, hit, mop, in, spell, vet
    • Open: the vowel is left alone at the end, the vowel will say its letter name / long vowel sound, for example, ‘go’, ‘she’, ‘he’, ‘no’
    • Split e / Split Digraph:  there is a vowel, consonant and e in the word (VCE), although word has 2 vowels there is only one syllable, for example, gate, kite, cake, globe
    • R Controlled: when r comes after a vowel it is controlled by the r, the vowel sound and the r work together (for example, car, stir, fur, (1 syllable words) and progressing to 2 syllable words: car/pet, or/bit, spi/der, tur/ban 
    • Vowel Teams: if two vowels are together and make one sound they become a vowel team syllable-rain, boat, clay and usually make one long vowel sound
    • Consonant plus le (c+le):   ta/ble, jun/gle, ti/tle  (double consonants: ap/ple, drib/ble, gig/gle)
  • Model fluent reading by reading a portion of text aloud using appropriate pace, expression and phrasing
  • Repeated reading involve the pupil in reading a short piece of text several times until a suitable level of fluency has been achieved 
  • Choral reading - the class group read together enabling the pupil to develop fluency and vocabulary knowledge

The pupil may be unable to understand more information text and subject -specific keywords 

 

The pupil may be unaware of terms such as, the root word, the prefix or the suffix

  • Teach subject specific keywords and ensure the pupil understands what they mean

  • Teach - the root word, for example, ‘joy’ and how by adding a prefix or suffix the word meaning changes

    his is a morphology planner. A square divided into six boxes. The middle square provides the root word, for example, 'joy' and the meaning of the word-'a happy feeling'. The boxes on the left of the box provide prefixes, such as, 'en' and ''over'. The boxes on the right of the word are suffixes 'ed', 'able', 'ing', 'ful', and 'ly'

Figure 13: Morphology Planner - from EEF Document - Teaching Literacy in KS2

 

Developing Reading Comprehension

Comprehension of text is the goal of reading. It makes sense that a pupil with poor decoding, fluency and vocabulary will struggle to fully understand the text. By addressing these needs, comprehension will improve. However, it must not be assumed that because a pupil can read the text accurately that comprehension is in place. Comprehension strategies need to be taught explicitly across the curriculum to provide the pupil with the necessary skill of understanding the content. The terms ‘comprehension skills’ and ‘comprehension strategies’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Skills are what the pupil needs to be able to do to achieve comprehension independently, whereas strategies are the tools he / she employs to get there. In other words, we develop skills by teaching skills

  • Finding information
  • Making connections and inferences
  • Understanding vocabulary
  • Using structure and organisation to make meaning
  • Understanding the author’s intent and expressing opinion

There are various comprehension strategies that can be taught, and the aim is for the pupil to find which works for them in a particular subject area. A pupil may use more than one strategy when working on one piece of text. Comprehension strategies are developed by:

  • Learning to ask questions about a text
  • Learning to activate prior knowledge (what you know about when and where this story is set or the characters in the book)
  • Learning to summarise (identify the beginning, middle and end of a story)
  • Learning how to clarify what you know (if unsure read back over a particular section). This checking behaviour is known as comprehension monitoring
  • Learning how to predict (What might happen next)

When teaching a new strategy, the following steps should be taken to enable the pupil to use it independently:

  1. Explicit description of the strategy
  2. Modelling of the strategy (I do, we do, you do approach-support is gradually withdrawn) 
  3. Collaborative use
  4. Guide practice with feedback
  5. Independent use of the strategy
Impact on ReadingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments 

The pupil is unsure of how to interpret narrative text 

 

The pupil may be a newcomer pupil who is struggling with a second language

 

The pupil may have a difficulty in answering or discussing text 

 

 

 

  • Teach skimming and scanning skills - Skimming is quickly reading to have an idea of the text by looking at the introduction and conclusion and reading first and last sentences in each paragraph
  • Scanning is reading over a piece of text rapidly to find a piece of key information by allowing eyes to float down the page until the key words / phrases are located
  • Provide opportunities for reading of continuous text and encourage discussion of text, generalising and scanning for key information:

EA Guidance Video: Reading Consolidation Exercise (4:45 mins)

  • Encourage the use of highlighter pens to mark vital information, a second colour of highlighter can be used to mark supporting information or secondary details:
  • Consistently ask questions and encourage the pupil to make predictions, before and during reading
  • Provide the 6 W’s question words on post-its or cards:
    • Who, What, When, Where, Why and How 
    • Invent questions
    • Ask questions
    • Answer questions

The pupil may struggle to relate text to events in his / her own life and be unable to make connections

 

Pupil may struggle to identify inference in the text

 

Unable to think flexibly or creatively due to co-occurring difficulty such as Autism

 

The pupil may become disinterested easily due to co-occurring difficulty such as ADHD or difficulties with Executive Function and Working Memory 

 

 

 

 

 

  • Encourage pupil to activate prior learned knowledge and think about what is already known about this subject
  • Have the pupil read one or two paragraphs at a time to get an idea about the text and check his / her understanding as he / she explains in his / her own words what the paragraph was about (clarify)
  • Teach Visualisation where the pupil can create mental images of characters, places, settings, and events, paying close attention to the descriptive language used:

Printable Resource: Visualisation - Reading Prompt Chart

  • Teach the diverse types of inference (logical, probable and possible) and how to consider the possibilities
  • Guided practice identifying inference with systematic starter activities or by working through a range of text
  • Highlight parts of a text that provide evidence of the inference to help the pupil build his / her inference skills
  • Through class discussions, debates, teach reasoning skills (deducting and concluding) and how to apply them logically
  • Verbalising - when summarising, ask the pupil to retell the notable events or subject content in his / her own words 
  • Provide templates of graphic organisers, timelines, and mind maps to help the pupil to summarise: 

Printable Resource: Mind Map (Bubble Format)

  • Use the SQ3Rs Reading Strategy  - a structured approach that can develop a pupil’s understanding and study skills across all subjects.  The techniques of:
    • Survey - scan the text and identify its structure, identify new words and phrases, make notes, underline main ideas and concepts
    • Question - ask lots of questions, think beyond the text, visualisation
    • Read - as you read look for answers to the questions that you have created
    • Recite / recall - visualisation
    • Review / reflect - read important sections again slowly and write a book summary
The pupil may struggle to summarise the text
  • Use a step-by-step approach:
    • Highlight the first sentence of each paragraph
    • Read aloud
    • Write one key word next to each paragraph
    • Retell the key event
    • Then develop the task

 

Monitoring

Continue to monitor pupil’s reading ability by providing reading challenges, such as, checks on - key subject knowledge, specific keywords, prose reading, retrieval practice and quizzes (reading challenges will help the pupil store information in the long-term memory and instil a positive attitude to learning).

Assistive Technology

As pupils learn in diverse ways, teachers may need to adopt alternative methods to help reduce or by-pass pupil’s learning difficulties. An inclusive learning environment needs to be established, where pupils will benefit from using accessibility tools and technology to help them access the curriculum. Some examples of beneficial software are:

  • Microsoft 365 Reading Coach in Immersive Reader
  • Microsoft 365 Immersive Reader 
  • Microsoft 365 Read Aloud (Text-to-Speech feature)
  • Texthelp Text-to-Speech 
  • Texthelp Dictionary 

For information on using the software in external exams there is further information available in the chapter on Access Arrangements.

Signposting for Free Professional Learning Modules

The following professional learning modules may be helpful for additional information regarding the strategies recommended in this chapter. They are provided by the Literacy Service and are available through the Children and Young People's Services Professional Learning Programme, which is hosted on the EA website. The access code to the courses is updated each year and shared with your Principal in September:

Bibliography and References

Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S25-S44. https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/rrq.411

Education Endowment Foundation: Improving Literacy in Secondary Schools

Shanahan, T. & Shanahan, C. (2012) What is Disciplinary Literacy and Why Should it Matter?

Intercultural Education Service 

Henry, M.K. (2010) ‘Unlocking Literacy’. Baltimore: Paul Brooks Publishing Co

Jones, K. (2021) ‘Retrieval Practice: Resource Guide.’ Suffolk: John Catt Educational Ltd

Murphy, J. and Murphy, D. (2018) ‘Thinking Reading’. Suffolk: John Catt Educational Ltd 

McGeown, S., Oxley, E., Practice Partners, L. t. R., Ricketts, J., & Shapiro, L. (2023). ‘Working at the intersection of research and practice: The love to read project’. International Journal of Educational Research, 117, 102134

Paige, D. D. (2011). ‘16 Minutes of “Eyes-on-Text” Can Make a Difference: Whole-Class Choral Reading as an Adolescent Fluency Strategy’. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 51 (1)

Reid, G. and Clark, J (2021) ‘Dyslexia Workbook for Teens’. California: Rockridge Press

Reid, G. (2010) ‘Learning Styles and Inclusion’. London: Sage Publications 

Ricketts, J., Dawson, N., Taylor, L., Lervåg, A., & Hulme, C. (2020). ‘Reading and oral vocabulary development in early adolescence’.

Stone, L. (2021) ‘Spelling for Life’. Oxon: Routledge Scientific Studies of Reading, 24(5), 380-396. doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1689244

Ricketts, J., Jones, K., O'Neill, P., & Oxley, E. (2022). ‘Using an assessment decision tree to align students’ reading needs to support in school’.