Primary - Reading
Age 6 - 11
Explicit phonics instruction is vital to enable pupils to develop effective strategies for decoding unknown words. However, it is important that phonics skills are developed in the context of an integrated and balanced approach that emphasises the range of skills needed for effective reading:
- Vocabulary (word meaning)
- Grammar and syntax (recognising a well-formed sentences)
- Orthographic awareness - print knowledge (recognising patterns in print)
- Phonological awareness of the smaller sounds in the spoken language (syllable, onset and rime, whole word and phoneme level)
- Morphemic knowledge - knowledge of affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
The pupil needs to learn the importance of syntactic and semantic awareness at the same time as he / she develops vocabulary knowledge and comprehension strategies, in order to develop fluency and understanding. From the first point of learning to Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 a ‘top-down, bottom-up’ and ‘balanced’ approach to literacy development, needs to be developed at whole school level and systems level as well as individual pupil level. A balanced approach should aim to develop all the knowledge sources interconnected and working together to ensure the working memory is well supported in pupils with literacy difficulties. Pupils need to be taught to be effective and independent problem-solvers and this can be modelled by teachers verbalising the problem-solving approach.
Pupils in Key Stage 2 can be scaffolded in their learning by access to by-pass strategies, such as Text-to-Speech (TTS) and Speech-to-Text (STT) software. Audio books provide the opportunity to listen to the books that their peers are enjoying, while also helping to develop rich vocabulary in pupils whose reading levels may be lower at that time.
Indicators of Reading Difficulties in Primary
- Pupil breaks words down into individual sounds but struggles to blend, for example, /s/, /p/, /l/, /i/, /t/ = ‘split
- Difficulty decoding text and puts so much effort into this that he / she struggles to answer questions about the text
- Frequently confuses similar sounds (such as /n/ and /m/, /e/ and /i/, /f/ and /v/) which leads the pupil to misread words
- Pupil has limited decoding skills for sounding out unfamiliar words, particularly in isolation
- Decodes every word as an unfamiliar word rather than applying knowledge of words with the same pattern
- Struggles to sound out longer words (compounded by working memory difficulties)
- Reading is laborious and lacks fluency
- Pupil tends to skip lines or words within the line
Phonological Awareness Difficulties - the importance of teaching all four levels of phonics
Phonological Awareness refers to awareness of not just smaller units of sound (phoneme) in the spoken word, but the larger units of sound; syllables and intra-syllabic units (onset and rime). Phonological awareness can be a predictor of later reading achievement and phonemic awareness can develop as a result of learning to read.
Many pupils in the classroom will be able to read accurately as they have developed an implicit knowledge of words from their exposure to words and reading books. A skilled reader will sound out the word a few times and remember it again when the word is next encountered. However, a significant minority of pupils will have literacy difficulties which may be due to an underperforming phonological or orthographic processor, poor working memory or co-occurring neuro-biological conditions. These cognitive difficulties will impact on the pupil’s visual memory of words, and partial or incomplete images may be stored in memory, if the word is seen again, it may not be recognised as being familiar. Working memory difficulties impact on a pupil being able to hold more than two individual phonemes in memory, therefore onset and rime patterns scaffold learning, as there may be fewer sounds to remember and blend in each chunk of the word.
Pupils presenting with these difficulties will benefit from explicit teaching of reading strategies within a structured, sequential, cumulative, multisensory and phonics-based programme.
There may also be pupils who initially present with phonological difficulties but who overcome these initial difficulties and may become competent readers and spellers, as they learn by analogy and awareness of word patterns. Assessment is essential to establish each pupils’ learning profile.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
The pupil may guess words in a sentence and makes up his / her own version of the text Pupil appears to have no awareness of strategies to help, when stuck at a word |
|
The pupil may struggle to blend and segment simple consonant/ vowel/ consonant (CVC) words
|
|
The pupil does not understand what a sentence is and is unable to write or make a simple sentence The pupil’s reading lacks fluency |
|
| The pupil has a limited awareness or comprehension of a story |
|
The pupil may find it difficult to hear and distinguish sounds within words
He / she may have a difficulty with isolating and manipulating phonemes
|
|
The pupil finds it difficult to retain new learning and has no strategies to apply to reading
The pupil guesses words when stuck |
|
The pupil may have disengaged from reading and have lost confidence
The pupil may lack fluency in reading
|
Decodable books that contain only sounds covered to date are useful, however they are best used in a balanced approach, alongside appropriately levelled reading books, to prevent a reliance on only one method of decoding an unknown word. Where only one type of text is used for practice, it may enhance those difficulties faced by a significant minority of pupils with orthographic difficulties. They may develop an over-reliance on decoding as the only strategy when faced with an unknown word.
This approach supports a pupil with working memory and orthographic difficulties |
Visual Processing and Tracking Difficulties
Visual processing refers to how the brain processes and interprets visual information. Visual tracking is how the eyes follow the visual information to interpret it. To have a visual processing and tracking difficulty describes when the eyes are unable to feedback visual information accurately such as identifying information from pictures or reading text. It may focus on difficulties with saccadic eye movements where the pupil experiences difficulty reading smoothly ‘through’ individual words or where there appears to be difficulty with the smooth movement of eyes while reading along lines of text. Other difficulties may involve the ability of eyes to ‘team’ (work together with the same point of focus) while reading text. Where these types of difficulties are apparent, referral to an optician is always advised.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
| The pupil may have difficulties keeping his / her place in a text |
|
| The pupil guesses words in a text |
|
Working Memory difficulties
A good reader relies heavily on strong working visual and auditory memory skills. Good readers only require several exposures to a word before they can read it automatically. However, pupils with visual working memory difficulties may not remember more than two items and this impacts on their ability to decode and recognise words quickly despite frequent exposure to the words.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
| The pupil may struggle to retain and recognise words |
Simultaneous Oral Spelling Instructions
|
| The pupil is unable to hold the individual phonemes in words in his / her working memory for long enough to blend them together |
|
The pupil’s reading may lack fluency and expression
|
|
The pupil may struggle to comprehend the text as the working memory is overwhelmed by the effort of decoding
|
|
Orthographic Processing Difficulties
Orthographic knowledge refers to understanding of how spoken language is represented in writing. Accurate word identification requires a pupil to recognise which letters combine to form it, and so orthographic knowledge enables fluent reading by enabling the pupil to recognise words quickly and automatically.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
The pupil may have forgotten what a particular letter looks like or recall a specific High Frequency Word (HFW) or topic word
The pupil may frequently confuse the initial letter when trying to read a word in text, for example, ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘p’, ‘q’ |
|
The pupil may have a difficulty detecting patterns and sequences in print and applying this knowledge to unfamiliar words
|
|
| The pupil may have difficulty retaining HFWs in memory |
|
Limited Morphemic Knowledge
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language which contains meaning. For example, prefixes and suffixes are morphemes – when added, they change the meaning of words. Morphology refers to the study of the structure of words and how they are formed. This can help pupils to break words into smaller chunks, which are more manageable for them to decode, and reduce the demands placed upon their working memory.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
The pupil may appear to rely on phonological knowledge, for example, spells ‘jumped’ as ‘jumpt’ so can misread suffixes Pupil fails to break longer words into manageable chunks such as prefix root word and suffix |
|
| The pupil may be unfamiliar with spelling rules |
|
Slow Processing Speed
Slow processing speed is when pupils need additional time to take in, understand and respond to visual or oral information. Slow processing speed difficulties can be apparent in pupils with co-occurring difficulties, and this will impact on their ability to read with automaticity.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
| The pupil may be slow processing information and this impacts on reading and the pupil struggles to make connections |
|
Reading Fluency
Reading fluency is frequently an area of persistent difficulty for pupils with literacy difficulties as often the pupil is still focused on trying to decode each word. It is important to model stories read with fluency and explain the use of punctuation marks.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
The pupil’s reading is slow and laboured
The pupil lacks expression and use of appropriate tone |
|
The pupil may read on at punctuation and appear to be unaware of punctuation
|
|
The pupil may hesitate frequently at unknown words and will often stare at the page
The pupil is frequently inaccurate in decoding a text and is unable to recall events simplistically |
|
Reading High Frequency Words (HFWs)
Developing the pupil’s ability to read HFWs quickly automatically increases the resources he / she has available for decoding unknown words and comprehending text. Sight words are words that pupils can read unconsciously and effortlessly without sounding out. High frequency words (HFWs) are words that appear often in a text and should be read automatically and once a pupil can read them immediately ‘on sight’ they become sight words. There are HFWs that can easily be decoded; some that contain phonetically decodable parts and some that are completely irregular and cannot be phonetically decoded. Very often, pupils with literacy difficulties will find learning HFWs a struggle as the words tend to be abstract or phonetically irregular and they find it difficult to attach meaning to such words.
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
The pupil may struggle to retain HFWs
The pupil may find complex mappings of sounds to letter a challenging task, for example, ‘go, sew, know’
|
|
Pupil tries to decode phoneme by phoneme
|
|
The pupil guesses the word using context but does not scan across the word
The pupil may confuse and misread the HFWs |
|
Developing Reading Comprehension
Pupils with literacy difficulties very often are so focused on phonetically decoding the word they do not ‘take-in’ the meaning of the word/sentence or short story. It is important to check that pupils with literacy difficulties, co-occurring difficulties or newcomer pupils understand what they are reading at a more meaningful level. Comprehension strategies need to be taught explicitly across the curriculum to provide the pupil with the necessary skill to understand the content. The terms ‘comprehension skills’ and ‘comprehension strategies’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Skills are what the pupil needs to be able to do to achieve comprehension independently, whereas strategies are the tools the pupil employs to get there. In other words, we develop skills by teaching strategies.
It is important to model and scaffold comprehension strategies and guide the pupils to use them independently and to monitor understanding as they read.
Shared reading can be used to model comprehension strategies and can be monitored during guided reading activities.
Reciprocal reading is a structured approach to teaching strategies (questioning, clarifying, summarising, and predicting) that pupils can use to improve their reading comprehension. For information, resources, and videos of the intervention in practice in NI schools, see: Reciprocal Reading
Reading texts with set questions can provide a helpful structure, but comprehension strategies can be developed using incidental opportunities that arise from engagement with text across the curriculum.
Prior to and during reading, ensure that the pupil understands any new vocabulary and provide picture prompts and contextual examples as needed.
Provide the pupil with access to audio books and eBooks, downloaded free from NI Libraries.
Comprehension skills
- Finding information
- Making connections and inferences
- Understanding vocabulary
- Using structure and organisation to make meaning
- Understanding the author’s intent and expressing opinion
There are various comprehension strategies that can be taught, and the aim is for the pupil to find which works for them in a particular subject area. A pupil may use more than one strategy when working on one piece of text. When teaching a new strategy, the following steps should be taken to enable the pupil to use it independently.
- Explicit description of the strategy
- Modelling of the strategy (I do, we do, you do approach - support is gradually withdrawn)
- Collaborative use
- Guide practice with feedback
- Independent use of the strategy
| Impact on Reading | Recommendations for Reasonable Adjustments |
|---|---|
The pupil may have difficulty with word recognition (retrieving from memory) which impacts on comprehension of the text
The pupil may have an underperforming working memory which has impacted on his / her ability to decode a word with fluency and comprehension of text impacted |
|
The pupil may have word finding difficulties when answering questions about a text
The pupil may have working memory difficulties and be unable to remember all the words in a sentence to answer a question correctly |
|
The pupil can read words proficiently but has difficulty understanding the text
The pupil may have difficulty understanding ideas of a story |
|
| A pupil may have a limited vocabulary knowledge which makes comprehension of text very difficult |
|
A pupil may have low self-esteem and no interest or enthusiasm to attempt to read a book
|
|
| The pupil may not understand the purpose of reading as they are focused on trying to decode text |
|
The pupil may be unable to navigate around a book
He / she may not know what is meant by, ‘burb’, ‘title’. ‘main character’ or ‘setting’
The pupil may not be aware how the author uses language to create an atmosphere in a story |
|
A pupil may have a limited range of vocabulary and oral language may be underdeveloped
|
|
Assistive Technology
- Graphic organisers are visual representations, like diagrams and mind maps, of ideas and concepts. Pupils can use graphic organisers to take notes while reading to support their comprehension
- Sticky notes let pupils take notes and write comments while reading. This can help them retain information or write down questions or thoughts
- Highlighters
- Coloured overlays can be beneficial for some pupils, as they reduce the amount of contrast on the page. Physical overlays can be purchased for use in class with worksheets or reading books
- When using a device such as a laptop or tablet there are a range of ways to add an overlay to the screen, such as applying ‘Colour Filters’ in iPad or Windows or using ‘Screen Masking’ in Read and Write
- Pupils can be taught to use text-to-speech software so that they can have any text read aloud to them. Having text read aloud will give the pupil access to the same material as his / her peers while at the same time introducing new vocabulary. This can be facilitated through Read and Write, ‘Immersive Reader’ in Microsoft 365 or ‘Spoken Content’ in iPad
- Microsoft Reading Progress is a free tool that is built into Microsoft Teams. Teachers assign passages to pupils which the pupils record themselves reading and then submit back to the teacher
- Provide access to year-level content providing pupils with the expected information within the curriculum. Higher-level vocabulary is gained through audiobooks and becomes part of a pupil’s knowledge base while strengthening critical listening skills
- Audiobooks also model fluent reading, the pupil can be immersed in the meaning of text, as the requirement to decode / read the printed word is removed
All teachers in Northern Ireland have access to the Literacy Service - Initial Contact Support Portal. It is a resource that has been designed to help bolster your in-school support for pupils with literacy needs. If you have not been added to this site and would like to access it, please complete the registration form at the following link:
Literacy Service: Initial Contact Support Portal - Staff Details Form
Signposting for Free Professional Learning Modules
The following professional learning modules may be helpful for additional information regarding the strategies recommended in this chapter. They are provided by the Literacy Service and are available through the Children and Young People's Services Professional Learning Programme, which is hosted on the EA website. The access code to the courses is updated each year and shared with your Principal in September:
- Office 365 Learning Tools (Primary & Post Primary)
- Strategies to Support Pupils with Comprehension Difficulties (Primary & Post Primary)
- Use of a Running Record-Everyone
- Overview of Texthelp Read and Write Software (Pre-school, Primary & Post Primary)
- Using iPads to Support Pupils with Literacy Difficulties (Everyone)
- Office 365 Learning Tools (Primary & Post Primary)
- EA Literacy Service Newsletter Issue 2: Read All About It: Reading
Bibliography and References
Deheane, (2013) ‘How the brain learns to read.’
DENI Special Educational Needs (SEN) Resource File: The Beginning Reading Programme (Dr S McMurray)
Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). ‘The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading.’ Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S25-S44. https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/rrq.411
Education Endowment Foundation (2018)’ Preparing for Literacy: Improving Literacy in the Key Stage 1’, London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Frith, U. (2020) ‘Dyslexia: learning to read in Italian.’ Video. Accessed 5/10/22 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYrxiqq9gsU&t=1s
Gough, P. B. and Tunmer, W. E. (1986) ‘Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability’, Remedial and Special Education’, 7, pp. 6–10. https://doi. org/10.1177/074193258600700104
Kelly, K. and Phillips, S. (2022) ‘Teaching Literacy to learners with Dyslexia-A Multi-sensory Approach’. London: Sage Publications Ltd
Kirkpatrick, D. (2016) ‘Equipped for Reading Success: A Comprehensive, Step-by-Step Program for Developing Phonemic Awareness and Fluent Word Recognition’. New York: Casey & Kirsch Publishers
Lavan, G & Talcott, J. B, (2021). ‘BROOK’S WHAT WORKS FOR LITERACY DIFFICULTIES’. Accessed 16/3/22
McMurray, S. (2020) ‘A resource for schools to support children who may have Special Educational Needs: The importance of an integrated approach when learning to spell’
McMurray, S, and Fleming C. (1998, 2006) The ‘Complete Spelling programme (CSP) Spelling and Language Programme’, (3rd Edition, 2014) The Read Write Company Limited
McMurray, S. (2020), ‘The beginning reading programme: the importance of a balanced approach’ in ‘A resource for schools to support children who have or may have SEN’
Zarić, J., Hasselhorn, M. & Nagler, T. ‘Orthographic knowledge predicts reading and spelling skills over and above general intelligence and phonological awareness’. Eur J Psychol Educ 36, 21–43 (2021)