Foundation - Writing

Age 4 - 6 

Teaching writing skills follows the same approach as teaching reading and spelling. Pupils with early literacy difficulties needs to be taught how the English language works and they need to develop a sight vocabulary alongside a knowledge of word patterns (orthographic pattern). A pupil with a specific difficulty will require a lot of practice and consolidation to develop automaticity in the skills of spelling to be able to transfer this skill to independent writing. All the sub-skills need to be developing before the pupil can confidently attempt independent writing.

Cognitive AbilityDefinition
Morphemic KnowledgeA morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word. Knowledge of words and their parts, for example, prefixes, suffixes, for example, ‘cat’- ‘cats’, ‘look’- ‘looked’
Syntactic knowledge Knowledge of grammatical structure and punctuation. What a sentence looks like
Semantic KnowledgeKnowledge that the pupil will have acquired from experience of the world. Word meanings. Rich vocabulary
Orthographic knowledgeKnowledge of word patterns, for example, ‘man’, ‘can’, ‘ran’
Phonological knowledgeAwareness of all the sounds at the grapheme / phoneme, onset and rime, syllable and whole word level
Executive Function Difficulties

The Executive Function plays a major role in writing as pupils have, to organise tasks and recognise the specific steps required to reach the end goal. Pupils with specific literacy difficulties may find it difficult to determine their goal and / or understand the importance of planning to be prepared for a certain situation and are therefore unable to work independently.

Impact on WritingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments

The pupil may find it difficult to start a task and as a result will often just sit quietly

The pupil may find it difficult to follow and remember the teacher’s instructions

  • Provide clear instruction of the steps required for the activity
  • Provide a visual record of the steps required to complete the activity
  • Use bullet points in a ‘help box’ or ‘help board’ presented either on the Interactive Whiteboard or post-its on the pupil’s table

The pupil may find it difficult to organise his / her ideas 

 

He / she may find it difficult to structure and sequence his / her ideas or retain in short-term memory

  • Provide a writing frame for the pupil who is reluctant to write
  • Model some simple sentences for the pupil, that could be incorporated into the story:
  • The pupil may begin by copying underneath the model
  • Cut up the sentence for the pupil to restructure correctly
  • Progress to producing his / her own simple sentence
  • Encourage the pupil to self-monitor and check for errors (provide a model which he / she can refer to)

  • Provide sentence beginning prompts:

    Printable Resource: Recount Writing Prompts

  • Provide key words and make sure the pupil understands the words
  • Introduce the pupil to Clicker 8 to reinforce his / her understanding of a simple sentence:
    Teacher Guidance: Installing Clicker 8 on a Personal Device
Processing Speed Difficulties

Processing speed is a way of describing how the brain receives, understands, and responds to information.  Not everyone thinks at the same pace.  A pupil with a slow processing speed may struggle to follow lessons and complete tasks. Working memory is closely linked to the speed at which information is processed, so it is common to see difficulties with working memory coupled with a slower rate of processing information.

Impact on WritingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments

The pupil may be slow to begin a written task

 

He / she may struggle with background noise 

  • Ensure the class is quiet and attentive before beginning
  • Ensure the pupil is actively listening
  • Provide clear instruction of the steps required for the activity
  • Provide a visual record of the steps required to complete the activity
  • Use bullet points in a ‘help box’ or ‘help board’ presented either on the Interactive Whiteboard or post-its on the pupil’s table
The pupil may produce a limited amount given the same time as his / her peers
  • Allow the pupil to record ideas by a different means:
  • Voice record
  • Bullet points
  • Reduce expectations of quantity of work he / she needs to produce and focus on quality
  • Provide sentence beginning prompts:

Printable Resource: Recount Writing Prompts

  • Provide key words
Working Memory Difficulties

Pupils with working memory difficulties may only be able to recall and manipulate a very small amount of information at a time before their working memory capacity is overwhelmed. Working memory difficulties also impact upon the retrieval and storage of information in long-term memory, as working memory helps the brain to organise new information for long-term storage and searches long-term memory to retrieve required information. The working memory difficulties experienced by pupils with literacy difficulties are likely to leave them struggling to cope with many of the demands of classroom activities, thereby reducing their access to the learning opportunities provided, and creating anxiety and a frequent sense of failure. However, when appropriate support is put into place it may alleviate the difficulties caused by poor working memory.  

Impact on WritingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments

The pupil may struggle to participate in writing activities 

 

He / she may be unclear how to structure or present his / her ideas

 

He / she may be unable to retain all his / her ideas in his / her head and then transfer to paper

  • Use drama, music, art and role-play to encourage the pupil to think creatively and talk about ideas for writing before recording formally (once a pupil has orally explored his / her ideas it is easier to start to write) 

Before writing discuss and talk about what the pupil knows already (importance of prior knowledge). Use a story boards, story maps, mind maps and flow-charts or comic strips to collate is his / her ideas:

Printable Resource: Story Map 

Develop routines that become automatic such as the use of the 

  • ‘Think it, Say it, Write it’ Routine or provide frameworks as support:

Printable Resource: Recount Writing Prompts

Use Verbalisation to support memory by allowing the pupil to say aloud what he / she is trying to remember

The pupil may find blending of sounds very difficult, and this poor phonological knowledge prevents him / her beginning to write
  • Teach phonetically regular words in word patterns, for example, ‘fit’, ‘sit’, ‘kit’
  • Enable the pupil to feel success in that they can write a simple sentence

The pupil may struggle to retrieve sight vocabulary from his / her long -term memory

 

The pupil may be unable to hold words in his / her mind as he / she writes a short phrase or sentence. This often results in content that is jumbled or disorganised

  • Practice Listen, Search, Select, Write Strategy:
    • The teacher reads 3 or 4 words- cat, hat, sat, mat 
    • The pupil listens to the words
    • The pupil searches across 4 words to identify the word the teacher has said
    • The pupil selects the word said by the teacher 
    • The pupil writes the word down
  • Activities to reinforce word recognition:
    • Select correct words in cloze procedure passage
    • Complete jumbled sentences
    • Progress to writing a sentence under the picture
  • Provide a daily routine with flashcards of sight vocabulary, to consolidate and reinforce these words in memory
  • Teach the pupil how to use a mind map to record his / her key ideas and help plan the structure of his / her story

The pupil may confuse similar sounds /f/, /th/and /v/

 

He / she may be confused over the orientation of letters such as ‘b’ and ‘d’ or words with similar shapes like shop and stop. This affects spelling and whole-word recognition

  • Have visuals of the following close to hand so pupil may refer to during writing activities 
    • Letter names
    • HFWs
    • Topic words  
  • Mnemonics will provide a memory prompt on directionality of letters:

Printable Resource: Letter Orientation Prompt

Ensure these mnemonics are explicitly explained. Do not assume prior knowledge has been linked. English readers read and form letters left-right across the page. For example, first the bat and then the ball. A pupil may be confused as the ball could sit on either side of the bat. Explain that you draw the bat first and then the ball (left to right)  

  • Thumbs up for ‘b’ and ‘d’, thumbs down ‘p’ and ‘q’
  • Explain that in the alphabet arc Mr ‘b’ comes first and he must face Mr ‘d’ who comes after ‘c’, as he wants to chat’; ‘b’ and ‘d’ stare at each other and poor ‘c’ is stuck in the middle. Then, comes Mr ‘p’ who needs to face Mr ‘q’ also to chat. The teacher can model this using his / her thumbs and demonstrate the 2 letters chatting:
The pupil may have Incorrect storage of information which results in words being recalled with letters in the wrong position, for example, ‘hlep’ for ‘help’
  • Teach the pupil strategies to rehearse storage of letters in a word. Introduce a Working Memory Routine:

EA Guidance Video: Working Memory (2:33 mins)

  • The teacher asks the pupil to remember 3 letters and then give them in reverse order
  • The pupil practices the following strategies:
  • Says the letters out loud
  • Says the letters over and over
  • Flips the letters
  • Use Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) routine when learning to spell in structure. This is a multisensory approach to teaching spelling that involves writing and naming letters simultaneously:
  • The pupil learns to spell a regular word by repeating the spoken word
  • Then saying the name of each letter as he / she writes the word
  • Finally reading the written word aloud

  • Joined up handwriting is especially useful for developing the motor memory and aiding automaticity. This process can be rapidly repeated several times. See links below for instructions and video:

    Simultaneous Oral Spelling Instructions

    EA Guidance Video: Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) (4:39 mins) 

  • Introduce the Dictated Sentence Routine:

  • Teacher Guidance: Dictation Routine

    EA Guidance Video: Dictation Routine (9:02 mins)

  • Teacher dictates the sentence
  • Pupil repeats the sentence
  • Teacher dictates the sentence again to ensure accuracy and correct pronunciation of each word (this also supports working memory difficulties)
  • Pupil repeats the sentence
  • Pupil writes the sentence (the use of a cursive script helps to develop automaticity in spelling the new word, hence freeing up the working memory to focus on content)
  • Pupil checks the sentences using a mnemonic    

Printable Resource: COPS Proof-Reading for Dictated Sentences

Printable Resource: COPs Proof - Reading Prompt

The writing process places huge demands on working memory. If a pupil’s working memory is compromised, letter formations, sizes and positions are often incorrect

The pupil may find it difficult to quickly recall the starting position, size, letter orientation, direction, formation and position of each individual letter as he / she writes a word or sentence. These difficulties compromise his / her ability to generate content for the writing task

The pupil may struggle with handwriting speed

  • Focus on the intended learning and not the task
  • Use recording buttons / devices or mind maps to record ideas or sentences before they are forgotten
  • Provide a sloped writing board as it may help
  • Give word banks if necessary

Introduce cursive handwriting style as it can provide a multisensory support where all the senses are integrated. The grapho-motor memory of the word and the movements required to form the word are stored in the long-term memory. It is also beneficial to say the letter names as you write the word

Handwriting difficulties

Handwriting is a physical skill that requires movement and is best learned through early accurate training. Handwriting although a motor activity needs to be taught as it is not a natural skill that will develop like walking. Explicit Instruction in handwriting improves the quality of the handwriting.

Many pupils learn the correct motor sequences for letter formations easily. However, for a significant minority of pupils, legible fluent letter formations are very difficult, laborious and almost impossible to achieve.

Handwriting is an area of difficulty for many learners with specific literacy difficulties (Dyslexia). Handwriting difficulties can also be associated with co-occurring difficulties in motor processing and coordination, for example, Dysgraphia, Dyspraxia and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Pupils with any of these cognitive difficulties are especially disadvantaged as writing requires considerable physical and mental strength. The physical act of handwriting places a strain on working memory which can also be an area of difficulty for pupils with literacy difficulties.

Many pupils, for a variety of reasons, find it difficult to correctly judge the space between the lines. They find it extremely difficult to create letters that are the appropriate size, formation and in the correct position. The visual-spatial sketchpad helps the pupil see images of letters in the mind’s eye during handwriting, however some pupils have weaknesses in visual-spatial memory, which are associated with ADHD and dyspraxia (DCD) -both of which commonly co-occur with dyslexia.  Visual processing difficulties may lead to faulty information being stored in long-term memory and, for many pupils, leads to difficulties in the orientation of letters, for example, b / d/, p / q, / j / g. 

The ability to write well also improves confidence. If a pupil has difficulty with handwriting, he / she can become discouraged, and self-esteem can be affected. The pupil can become a ‘reluctant’ writer, even from an early age.

Many pupils will have difficulty in learning or executing the sequence of motor movements needed to form each letter. They often simplify the movement to cope with the writing process. These simplified movements are easier to produce. They ‘draw pictures’ of the letter rather than forming it correctly. Over time these movements can become ingrained in long-term memory and are extremely difficult to override.  Handwriting practice routines should be part of the foundation stage curriculum as these will build up new motor and memory links in the brain. Motor memory is so strong, that it is important to recognise and understand the impact of overlearning incorrect motor sequences. There are no disadvantages in allowing pupils to form their letters on a line in primary one. Lines should be introduced to support pupils who struggle to make letters the correct size and position. It is helpful to say the movement as you write a letter, for example, start on the line, go up tall, down, flick up at the end.

Handwriting needs to begin with large movement training. Large whole fluid movements stimulate the brain to become aware of the motor sequence involved before the letter is written on paper. 

To support auditory memory and multisensory learning the school should decide on verbal instructions and a visual reminder for each letter formation. As the pupils form the letter the verbal instructions are said to aid memory. Cursive handwriting supports compositional skills and working memory as all letters start on the line. The introduction of pre-cursive from Primary 1 provides a continuity of style throughout the school. 

Outdoor chalk can be used to draw letters on rough ground outside. Model how the pupil should walk to mirror the correct formation. The pupil can walk, skip, hop, run indeed push a toy car around the large letter formation written on the ground. A squeezy bottle filled with water allows the pupil to squirt the formations on the ground. 

The pupil or teacher can stick tape or draw the letter on the floor on large pages inside and walk around the formation. It is important to use a variety of multisensory approaches:

  • Large formations can be written on many surfaces for example a blackboard, whiteboard, steamy window or a desk
  • Tracing large letters in the air, either using index finger (magic finger) or ribbons
  • Tracing letters and words on sandpaper or in trays filled with different substances offers tactile stimulation for example trays of sand, dried lentils, rice or shaving foam
  •  Making the formations for example with playdough is a tactile way to embed the formation
  • Tracing over the letter formation in assorted colours using different mediums for example chalk / felt tips / coloured pencils / highlighters / whiteboard markers create rainbow letters
  • Write the letter formation with eyes closed
  • Use a wet paintbrush on a blackboard 
  • Write the letter as many times as you can in a minute
  • Write the formation using different medium and surfaces for example whiteboard and markers or paint and paper
  • When writing on paper use appropriately sized feint depending on the stage the pupil is at in development
Impact on WritingRecommendations for Reasonable Adjustments
The pupil may have poor fine motor skills
  • Activities to strengthen the hand and develop fine motor skills:
  • Squeezing a stress ball
  • Manipulating Play-Doh
  • Cutting with scissors
  • Stringing pasta onto wool
  • Building with small blocks

Scrunching up paper in one hand

The pupil may have an inappropriate or insufficient pencil grip
  • Use a spray bottle or tweezers to grab and hold small items to develop a pincer grip
  • Encourage pupils to use a tripod grip (made by flexing the thumb, forefinger and middle finger)
  • Provide a 'tripod' grip for the pupil's pencil:
  • Supply triangular pencils
The pupil displays inappropriate seating position and posture 
  • Ensure the pupil's seat and table are at an appropriate height for them to sit with hips, feet and ankles bent at 90 degrees, with the desk 2.5-5cm higher than the pupil's bent elbow
  • Try providing a writing slope to encourage correct posture
Pupil writes with inappropriate pressure (too light or too heavy)
  • Provide the pupil with a light-up pen, as these will only illuminate if sufficient pressure is applied 
  • Assist the pupil to use carbon paper and to see how many layers their written message is shown through 
  • Provide a mechanical pencil (the lead will break if heavy pressure is used) 
  • Practice writing on paper placed on top of a foam sheet (the pencil will poke through if the pressure is too hard) 
The pupil may struggle with the positioning of the paper
  • The right side of the paper should be slightly higher for right-handed pupils. For left-handed pupils, the left side should be higher. The non-dominant hand is used to stabilise the paper On the desk, the paper the pupil is writing on should be slightly angled
The pupil may frequently begin to write in the middle of the line
  • Place a small dot on the writing line to guide them where to begin 

The pupil may have poor letter formation 

 

Letters are inconsistent sizes

  • Instead of teaching handwriting for one lesson a week, it can be helpful to spend twenty minutes a day focusing on cursive handwriting for half a term, to ensure that the formation of all the letters are introduced quickly and the pupil has the chance to implement the newly introduced writing style:
  • Provide lined paper with a choice of widths so the pupil can experiment (a wider line may be helpful initially)
  • A highlighter line could be drawn to give the pupil a reference point for correctly sizing 'small' and 'tall' letters:
  • This can progress to a pencil line drawn above the writing line
  • Finally, to a dotted pencil line which can contain progressively fewer dots over time
  • Encourage the pupil to think of sky, grass and soil in three layers to help focus on size and placement of ascenders and descenders in relation to the line
  • It is useful to connect rhyme and movement to reinforce and consolidate letter formation in visual and auditory memory:
  • Write out the alphabet using different colours for tall, small, hanging down letters
The pupil may struggle to implement the taught cursive
  • Use a multisensory approach when introducing new cursive joins:
    • Move from big movements 'sky writing'- forming large letters in the air using a finger, using chalk in the playground to smaller patterns
    • Reducing in size to writing in a sand tray / using a marker on a whiteboard and then to tracing over the letter on paper
    • Finally forming letters independently on paper 
  • Introducing related letters in groups according to the stroke -associated patterns and visuals can be helpful: 
    • The ‘magic' ‘c' letters" include: 'c,' 'a,' 'd', 'g', 'o', and 'q', beginning with a letter 'c' stroke
    • The ‘diver letters’ include: 'b', 'h', 'r', 'n', 'm', and 'p' and all begin with a line down and then 'swim up and over' strokes 
Assistive Technology
Signposting to Free Professional Learning Modules

The following professional learning modules may be helpful for additional information regarding the strategies recommended in this chapter. They are provided by the Literacy Service and are available through the ‘Children and Young People’s Services Professional Learning Programme’, which is hosted on the EA website. The access code to the courses is updated each year and shared with your Principal in September. 

Bibliography and References

Alstad,Z.,et al, (2015) ‘Modes of alphabet letter production during middle childhood and adolescence: Inter-relations with each other and other writing skills.’ Journal of Writing Research 6(3) – 199-231 

Arfe,B., Coralo, F.and Pizzocaro, E. (2019) ‘The effects of script and orthographic complexity on the handwriting and spelling performance of children with dyslexia’. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(2): 96-108e 

BDA Dyslexia Good Practice Guide Ed 2 2018 

Hall, T.E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D.H. (2012) ‘Universal Design for Learning in the Classroom.’ Guilford Press 

Hayes, J.R. & Berninger, V. (2014) ‘Cognitive processes in writing.’ In Are, B., Dockrell, J. and Berninger, V. (eds), Writing Development and Instruction in Children with Hearing, Speech and Language Disorders. New York: Oxford University Press

Kelly, K. & Phillips, S. (2022) ‘Teaching Literacy to Learners with Dyslexia- A Multisensory Approach’, Sage  

Limpo, T.& Graham, S. (2020) ‘The role of handwriting instruction in writers’ education.’ British Journal of Educational Studies, 68(3): 311-329

Resource File for Schools to support children with SEN DENI 2012  Page 111-194 Reading, Writing and Spelling for Children with SEN [Accessed 26th April 2023]

Simpson, R. & Holden, C. (2020) ‘Reading and Writing Speeds Guidance.’ London: SASC (SpLD Assessment Standards Committee)